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Snow skiing is a group of sports utilizing skis as primary equipment. Skis are used in conjunction with boots that connect to the ski with use of a binding. Although snowboarding shares the general characteristics of skiing sports, it evolved from surfing and skateboarding and so is not considered a type of skiing.
Skiing can be grouped into two general categories. Nordic skiing is the oldest category and includes sport that evolved from skiing as done in Scandinavia. Nordic style bindings attach at the toes of the skier's boots, but not at the heels. Alpine skiing includes sports that evolved from skiing as done in the Alps. Alpine bindings attach at both the toe and the heel of the skier's boots. As with many disciplines, such as Telemark skiing,
there is some crossover. However, binding style and history tend to
dictate whether a style is considered Nordic or Alpine. Thus, in view
of its lack of a locking heel, and its roots in Telemark, Norway, Telemark is generally considered a Nordic discipline.
History
-
Pre-historic Nordic People invented skiing to assist hunting,
military technique, and as a practical transportation for the Nordic
people and the Samis. The oldest and most accurately documented
evidence of skiing origins is found in modern day Norway and Sweden.
The earliest primitive carvings circa 5000 B.C. depicts a skier with
one pole, located in Rodoy, an island located in the Nordland region of Norway. The first primitive ski was found in a peat bog in Hoting, Sweden which dates back to 2500 or 4500 B.C.[1] [2].
Joel Berglund reported in 2004 the discovery of a primitive ski, or
"85cm long piece of wood", carbon tested by researchers in 1997 while
excavating a Norse settlement located near Nanortalik, Greenland. The primitive ski dated back to 1010, and is thought to be Greenland's oldest ski brought by Norsemen circa 980 A.D.[3]
Other accounts of early Nordic skiing are found with two modern
cross-country endurance races in Norway and Sweden. These ski races
were inspired by famous historical accounts of early medieval skiing in
their respective countries. The oldest account involves the famous
story from 1206 A.D. of the Birkebeiners during a civil war in medieval
Norway. Considered the underdog, the Birkebeiners were at war against a
rival faction known as the baglers. Following the death of the
Birkenbeiner chief, the baglers feared a rival in his young son Haakon
Haakonsson. In order to protect him, two of the most skillful
Birkenbeiner skiers, with toddler in tow, skied through treacherous
conditions over the mountains to safety in Lillehammer. Since 1932, Norway's annual Birkebeinerrennet, runs a 54 km cross-country ski race which pays tribute to this historical account.[4] [5] Since 1922, Sweden has run their own ski marathon known as the Vasaloppet. With its longest race at 90 km, and finishing in Mora,Sweden, it is known as the world's longest cross-country ski race. This endurance race commemorates the memory of "freedom fighter" Gustav Vasa
and subsequently Swedish independence. Pursued by the Danes in 1520
A.D. (under order from King Christian of Denmark who controlled Sweden
at the time), Gustav Vasa attempted to raise an army against the Danes,
but was forced to flee by skis north west towards Norway. Tracked down
by Mora's two best skiers, Gustav returned with them to Mora and lead
an uprising which eventually overthrew Danish rule. [6]
Skiing is also recorded in early literature. Icelandic saga author (circa 1200) Snorre Sturlason
wrote of Ull "God of Skiing" and Skade "Goddess of Skiing and Hunting"
in Norse mythology. One of the world's oldest references to skiing is
by Egil Skallagrimsson’s "950 AD saga describing King Haakon Adalsteinsfostre the Good’s practice of sending his tax collectors out on skis".[7] Another one of the oldest written accounts of skiing, is by Swedish writer Olaus Magnus in his writings A Description of the Northern Peoples
in the year 1555. His accounts record early primitive skiers
(presumably the Sami People) and their "climbing skins" in Scricfinnia,
a country or region at the top of modern day Norway.[8] [9]
Sometime around 1800 A.D. Danish traveler Father Knut Leed made
reference in Geographie to Norwegian kids "skiing just for the fun of
it, being able to pick up a hat dropped on the slope while going at
full speed."[10]
The word "ski" itself is one of a handful of words Norway has exported
to the international community. It comes from the Old Norse word "skio"
which means split piece of wood or firewood.[11] [12]
Previously, English speakers considered skiing to be a type of
snowshoeing. In regions where loose snow dominates, the indigenous
population developed snowshoes that did not slide across the snow, rather than skis which do[citation needed]. Today's forms of skiing are the modern extensions of ancient Nordic skiing. Whether it be the Nordic forms of Cross-country skiing (a form of Telemark skiing) and Telemark skiing, Ski mountaineering or Alpine skiing, modern forms of skiing share common threads of origin from the Telemark region in Norway led by Norwegian ski innovator Sondre Norheim.[13]
Norwegian Sondre Norheim is known as the "father of modern skiing" (meaning the originator of skiing as recreation and sport).[14] From the Telemark district of Morgedal, Norway,
which is also known as the "cradle of skiing", Norheim created the
design templates from which all forms of modern skiing are derived. In
1850, woodcarvers from the Telemark region introduced lighter, thinner,
cambered skis.[15] These developments were accompanied by Norheim's creation of stiff bindings
by fully securing the heel with a strong yet flexible strap made from
birch roots. This new binding system enabled the skier to swing, jump
and maneuver turns while skiing down hills.[16] These were known as "Osier" bindings.[17] [18]
Morten Lund writes, in his piece outlining the development of Alpine
skiing, that "Telemark skiing marked the transition to dynamic control,
changing the angle of the ski bottom on the snow and changing the
direction of the ski to the line of descent—the basis of technique even
today", thus the necessity for Norheim's heel binding invention. And as
a result, came the "flowering of the world’s first "freestyle"
contests—climbing, running, making turns for the heck of it and flying
off natural bumps on unprepared snow."[19]
In 1868, along with a couple of fellow skiers, Norheim attended the
"second annual Centralforeningen (Central Ski Association) open ski
competition whose object was to demonstrate skill at descending a
particular slope in the city."[20]
At the competition, Norheim demonstrated groundbreaking techniques
which set the ideal benchmarks for skiing in Norway and the European
Continent: the arc like sweep of "telemark turn" along with the skidded
"stem" stop turn (or commonly known as the "parallel" stop turn), which
was initially known as the "Christiania" turn (original name for modern
day Oslo).[21] [22] The "Christiania" came to be known simply as the "Christi" turn with the formalization of ski rules in 1901.[23] [24] Both turns, which originated in Telemark, mark the distinction between Telemark and Alpine skiing.[25]
Then in 1870, Norheim introduced his adaptive design of the Telemark
or "narrow-waisted" ski - "the forerunner of the sidecuts used on skis
today." Skis were narrowed, shortened and sides curved inwards.[26] These refinements greatly facilitated easier ski turns and set "the standard for ski design over the next century."[27]
By the 1880s, as demand for Norwegian skis increased, changes led to
the development of the first laminated skis which began to appear in
1881. These new fangled "hand-crafted" skis were constructed "with an
ash sole and pine top" and first exported to Sweden in 1882.[28]
Also in 1882, the first hickory skis appeared in Norway providing for a
thinner more flexible ski. Ski development was continued by Norwegian
H.M. Christiansen who constructed the first two-layer laminated ski in
1893, followed by fellow Norwegian Bjørn Ullevoldsaeter's patented
three-layer laminated ski. (Incidentally, this style was also
independently developed by George Aaland in Seattle.)[29] [30]
Collectively, these innovative designs and techniques laid the
foundation for all forms of modern skiing and further developments,
including one established form of skiing called Slalom by Norheim and his contemporaries in the Telemark region.[31] [32] [33]
Slalom, or "slalåm" in Norwegian dialect, is a Norwegian word
originating from Morgedal, Norway. "Sla" refers to slope, hill, or
smooth surface while "låm" means "track down the slope".[34]
The skiing techniques of 19th century Morgedal known as Telemark skiing
or "telemarking" underwent a revival in the 1970s. This revival of
Telemark skiing has been attributed by author Halvor Kleppen to five
American skiers from Colorado: Doug Buzzell, Craig Hall, Greg Dalbey,
Jack Marcial and Rick Borkovec, who were collectively inspired by
Norwegian ski phenomenon and Olympic champion Stein Ericksen and his book Come Ski With Me.[35]
Whereas Sondre Norheim had initially invented secure heeled bindings using water-soaked, flexible birch roots[36],
the next significant development of binding came in 1894 from Fritz
Huitfeldt who invented a binding with a secure toe iron which allowed
the heel to move freely. This became the standard industry binding
through the 1930s.[37] [38]
[Section to possibly be developed here on the more significant
binding developments: e.g. 1933 Adolph Attenhofer - "complete fixed
heel all-metal binding" and 1939 Hjalmar Hvam Saf-Ski binding] [39] [40]
[Section to be developed here on the precursors to Alpine
Racing: "long board competition" and/or what was known as "snowshoe"
racing (not First Nation snowshoes) and British Continental sking
approach.][41] [42] [43]
Retired Austrian school teacher Mathias Zdarsky, like many others at the time (including famed Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsend who became the first man to "ski" to the South Pole in 1911), was intrigued by world-renowned Norwegian explorer and Telemark skier Fridtjof Nansen, and his "high-risk expedition" accounts, in the 1890 German translation of Nansen's book On Skis Across Greenland.[44]
Inspired by Nansen's skiing exploits, Zdarsky took up the sport during
his retirement by importing Norwegian skis and teaching himself to ski.
Incorporating ski techniques from Norway, he developed a ski technique
system, known as the "Lilienfeld Method", which he outlined in his 1896
book Lillienfeld Skilaufer Technik (originally published as Lilienfelder Ski lauf-Technik). [45] [46] [47]
His key development, which led to enthusiastic embrace of skiing in the
Alps, was the "stem" technique, or what is commonly known is skiing as
the "snowplow" technique. This new technique enabled beginners to
experience the slopes in a "slow, and controlled manner", beyond the
more sophisticated and complicated Norwegian Telemark and Christiania
techniques, which limited the slopes to more advanced and skillful
skiers. By 1896, he was teaching his new methods to large groups of
"stem skiers" in Austria. [48] [49]
[Section to be developed here Circa 1910-20ish on the "transition
from ski mountaineering into alpine skiing" or racing initiated by the
British and Arnold Lunn who took Norway's concept of Slalom skiing and
created modern day downhill or Slalom racing.] [50] [51]
In 1908, expanding on the developments of this fellow countryman Zdarsky, a young Austrian ski guide by the name of Johannes Schneider entered the scene. With respect to skiing, Johannes (also known as Hannes) is to Austrians as Sondre Norheim and Fridtjof Nansen is to Norwegians. By the 1920s, he had worked to refine Sondre Norheim's "Christiania" "stem christi" turn, along with fellow countryman Mathias Zdarsky's
"stem" or "snowplow" technique. He used these Norwegian and Austrian
techniques to develop a logical system of ski instruction, a system
which began with the easiest snowplow technique, then progressing
through to more difficult ski skills. This system formed the basis for
Schneider's formalized Arlberg technique, which is named for his home region, and subsequently set a foundation for professional ski instruction. [52] [53]
This system also incorporated a set of ethical standards to the
profession of teaching. With this, the Arlberg technique spread and
helped make skiing a popular recreational activity.[54]
The biomechanical principles of alpine skiing were described in 1985 by Georg Kassat, professor at Münster University
Types of skiing
Many different types of skiing are popular, especially in colder
climates, and many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by
the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Ski Federation (FIS), and other sporting organizations, such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association in America. Skiing is most visible to the public during the Winter Olympic Games where it is a major sport.
In skiing's traditional core regions in the snowy parts of Scandinavia, as well as in places such as Alaska, both recreational and competitive skiing is as likely to refer to the cross-country variants as to the internationally downhill variants.
Alpine skier carving a turn on piste
Skiing techniques are difficult to master, and accordingly there are ski schools that teach everything from the basics of turning and stopping safely to more advanced carving, racing, mogul or "bump" skiing and newer freestyle techniques. There are two primary types of downhill skiing -- "telemark" and "alpine."
For beginning skiers learning under a trained instructor, skiing
speeds are low, the terrain is not steep and is often well-manicured,
and the risks are relatively low. For extreme skiers, testing their
expert abilities against ever more challenging terrain, the risks may
be much higher.
Alpine skiing: The term "skiing" commonly refers to alpine skiing where one visits a ski resort, purchases a lift ticket, dons cold-weather clothing, skis, ski boots and often ski poles, and embarks on a chairlift, gondola lift, or other means of mechanical uphill transport. Upon reaching the summit, the skier disembarks from the ski lift and travels downhill, propelled by gravity, usually along a marked route known as a piste,
"run," "trail," or "slope". Most ski resorts use mechanical equipment
to "groom," or pack down and smooth, the snow surface on certain ski
trails.
Alpine skiing developed in the Alps beginning in 1889. In Winterthur, Switzerland, Odd Kjelsberg may have been the first person in the Alps to try skiing. Previous to this time, the predominate Alpine winter sport had been tobogganing.
Alpine Freestyle: This kind of skiing could be called acrobatics on skis. Alpine freestyle was pioneered by Stein Eriksen in 1962. It developed in the 1970s into a style called Hotdogging. More recently Alpine freestyle has evolved into the current style called Jib skiing or freestyle skiing, a new style of skiing that started in the late 1990s. In this type of skiing, skiers use jumps also called kickers,or rails to do urban style aerial tricks.[55]
Back Country Skiing: Also called Nordic touring. In the Alps
where skiers can easily ski from area to area, Randonée and backcountry
skiing are indistinguishable. In North America however, where
chairlifts either aren't allowed or are impractical for touring, skiers
typically use Nordic style equipment which is more suitable for skiing
up-hill. The heels of the bindings always remain free, unlike Randoneé
bindings which can be locked down.
Cross-Country Racing: Cross-country skiing
takes its name from a type of ski race that is one third up, one third
down, and one third flat. The name distinguishes it from other types of
ski races and competition such as downhill racing, slalom
racing, and Nordic jumping. Cross-country races can be either freestyle
or classic. In freestyle racing, any technique is allowed as long as it
is human powered and on skis. In a classic race, skating techniques are
prohibited.
Kite skiing and para-skiing Skiing done while being pulled or carried by a parasail, hangglider, or kite.
Skiing on artificial ski slopes Dry slope skiing is a year-round sport in countries like the UK where the snow cover is insufficient for traditional skiing. There is a thriving race programme on British slopes. [1]
Military Skiing: In addition to its role in recreation and sport, skiing is also used as a means of transport by the military, and many armies train troops for ski warfare. Ski troops played a key role in retaining Finnish independence from Russia during the Winter War, and from Germany during the Lapland War, although the use of ski troops was recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century. The sport of Biathlon was developed from military skiing patrols.
Nordic Jumping: Also called ski-flying and ski jumping.
A competition in which skiers slide down a ramp called a jump and
attempt to go the furthest before landing on the ground. This is done
with Nordic style skis, meaning that the heels of boot and binding are
detached from the ski. The skis are much longer and wider than other
types of skis and jumping is typically done without ski-poles.
Nordic Skiing: Also called Cross-country skiing.
World wide, Nordic skiing may be the most popular form of skiing since
it does not require a specially ski area. Typically after donning
appropriate clothing, the skier goes outside and skis in a local park
or even on a snowy street. Nordic skiing is the oldest form of skiing
and was developed in Scandinavia as a way of traveling in the winter.
Randonnée Skiing: Randonnée is also called off-piste, ski mountaineering, and Alpine touring.
Randonnée skiing includes skiing in unmarked or unpatrolled areas either within the ski resort's boundaries or in the backcountry, frequently amongst trees ("glade skiing"), usually in pursuit of fresh fallen snow, known as powder.
Randonnée skiers typically use Alpine style skis and boots but with
bindings that can be released at the heel for easier movement on flat
and uphill terrain. For traveling up-hill randonnée skiers often use
skins, strips of fabric temporarily glued to the bottoms of the skis.
Skiing or snowboarding outside a ski resort's boundaries, is known as off-piste skiing. In most countries where skiing is popular - France, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Canada- this is permitted. While in the United States, off-piste skiing is not permitted at some resorts, in Iran, off-piste skiing
is not permitted at any resorts. Regulations vary by ski area; many ski
resorts prohibit it outright and some simply post warning signs that
skiers are leaving the patrolled ski area boundaries.
Classical
from 
